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In the fifth and the sixth centuries AD, Roman influence was replaced by that of, first, the Vandals and later the Byzantines. In the seventh century AD, Islamic conquest reached Tunisia. The city of Kairouan became the center of religious life and the site of one of Islam's most ancient and holiest mosques. In the ensuing centuries, Islamic civilization enriched Tunisia during five long dynasties both Arab and Ottoman. High points during this period were the establishment in Tunis of the Great Mosque and Islamic University of Zitouna; the flourishing of great thinkers such as Ibn Khaldoun, historian and father of modern sociology, who produced works which still influence scholarship ; and the arrival of Muslim Andalusian immigrants expelled from Spain in 1492. By the 16th century, Tunisia was under Ottoman control, and a dynasty of Beys governed the country.
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